The Libya Journal of geographical studies is a refereed and classified scientific journal, established based on the decision of Mr./ Chairman of the Central Region branch of the Libyan Geographical Society No. 1 for the year 2021. The magazine is published semi-annually with two issues per year (in January and July of each year), and carries the legal Deposit number (557/2021) at the National Book House in Benghazi, and is accredited by the Department of publications and works of art at the Ministry of culture and Knowledge Development in Tripoli by Decision No. 17 of 2022 issued by the director of the General Directorate of publications and works of art affiliated, in addition to obtaining the international standard serial number is line ISSN: 2789-4843 and print ISSN: 3080-0463, and the Journal has an Arab impact factor of (1.35) in 2025, and was also classified in the third category Q3 in the impact factor and reference citations of Arab journals (arsif) in 2025. The journal was also classified in the fourth category (Q4) in the Libyan electronic journal directory in 2024, and is an official member of the Crossref organization, where its research includes digital object identifiers DOI. The journal is also indexed within Google Scholar , and Researchgate Academia.edu, and databases of knowledge of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. The Libya Journal of geographical studies is concerned with providing researchers in Libya and all countries of the world with the opportunity to publish their original and objective research in various branches of geography and Sciences related to geography (such as: population, climate, geology, agriculture and Economics) in both Arabic and English, according to the standards of sober scientific research, with strict adherence to intellectual property laws and academic publication ethics. The research published in it is allowed to be downloaded free of charge from its website.
Rainfall Analysis in Lattakia (Syria) During the Period 1993–2024
Rainfall is one of the most important and vital climatic elements. This research aimed to analyze the general trend of rainfall at several rain stations in Lattakia Governorate for the period 1993–2024, using the Mann–Kendall nonparametric test to identify temporal variations in rainfall. The results indicated a significant increasing trend in annual rainfall at Bouqa and Wadi Qandeel stations, where the calculated test values exceeded the critical table value (1.96). A significant increasing trend was also observed in January at all stations, except Alhaffah station. The Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) was calculated for the six rainy months, and the years were classified according to their humidity and aridity levels based on index categories. The results showed that the majority of years were normal. Coefficients of variation (CV) were also computed, and a map of CV classes was prepared, with the highest value recorded at Bouqa station (37%). Additionally, an isohyetal map was prepared for the same period, showing that the study area was distributed between rainfall lines of <800 mm and >1150 mm, with approximately 71.2% of the area lying between 900 mm and 1000 mm.
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Spatio-temporal Variation of Precipitation : The Case of the M'dez Watershed (Middle Atlas, Morocco)
The objective this study is to analyze the spatio-temporal variability of precipitation amounts, in order to provide an objective assessment of its impacts on water resources. The analysis of precipitation variability was carried out in the M'dez watershed, which is distinguished by a diverse morphological mosaic. The rainfall parameters analyzed, for the period 1970-2024, include monthly, seasonal and annual average. Meteorological data were obtained from rainfall stations managed by the Sebou Basin Hydraulic Agency. In addition, precipitation anomalies were calculated and the standardized precipitation index (SPI) was calculated. For the study area, there was a high variability in precipitation amounts, both in terms of recorded values and the inconsistency of the years in which they occurred.
Geopolitical Population Dependency of the Libyan State: A Study in Geopolitics
This study focuses on highlighting the geopolitical population dependency of Libya. Understanding geopolitical dependency is considered a key factor in determining a state's strength in international relations. Although focusing solely on population size as an indicator of state power and behavior is not considered decisive or objective in geopolitical studies, population-related variables—such as gender ratio, levels of awareness and education, and technological literacy—are essential determinants of the population’s contribution to state power. The geopolitical dependency of Libya’s population relative to neighboring countries is a crucial and effective aspect in assessing state strength and its components. This study relied on 2023 population data from the United Nations. Geopolitical dependency was expressed mathematically using the ratio of the total population of Libya’s neighboring states to Libya’s population. The study analyzed Libya’s geopolitical dependency in relation to its population size and compared it with that of its neighboring countries to identify disparities in dependency rates and examine their effects on Libya’s power, effectiveness, and behavior at regional and international levels.
Housing and Its Facilities in the Mauritanian City: A Field Study of Boutilimit
Since its establishment, the city of Boutilimit has witnessed a gradual urban expansion manifested in the increase of its geographical area. Its urban fabric has shifted from rural housing to solid (permanent) housing through the reconstruction and extension of the original dwelling, although the city’s urban pattern is characterized by a combination of modern housing that responds to the requirements of life and inherited traditional housing that symbolizes the continuity of attachment to the Bedouin environment among groups of nomadic origin. This study aims to analyze the mechanisms controlling the production of the housing function in the city of Boutilimit and to examine their contribution to the multiplicity of housing patterns. It also seeks to reveal the role of local actors in the construction sector in the city, as well as the effectiveness of the city’s urban plan in directing land uses to confront the proposed challenges that affect the organization and development of space. Methodologically, the study is based on the results of a field study, in which diverse methodological tools were employed. Several scientific and practical stages were followed, including a bibliographic study, statistical research, and fieldwork, along with a set of cartographic and statistical techniques.
Spatial Distribution of Secondary Education Services in the Western Branch of the Zliten Area
This study aims to examine the spatial distribution of secondary education services in the Western Branch of the Zliten area and to identify the problems associated with this distribution by evaluating the efficiency and equity of secondary school locations. The study adopted a descriptive-analytical approach, employing statistical analysis using SPSS. Data were collected through a questionnaire administered to a sample of 200 male and female teachers distributed across secondary schools located in Al-Qasbah, Ka‘am, Al-Qazzahiyah, Al-Ghuwaylat, and Maghraghrin within the Western Branch. In addition, field studies were conducted through personal interviews with secondary school principals. The spatial distribution of schools was also analyzed using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) techniques. The study reached several findings, most notably that the distribution of secondary schools within the Western Branch is uneven. Al-Qasbah and Al-Ghuwaylat each contain three schools, while Ka‘am has only one school. In contrast, the areas of Al-Qazzahiyah and Maghraghrin lack any secondary schools, indicating an unplanned and inefficient distribution pattern. Preliminary indicators further revealed spatial disparities and insufficient school density in several neighborhoods within the Western Branch of the Zliten area. The study proposed a set of recommendations aimed at improving the spatial distribution of secondary schools in a manner that ensures equity in access to educational services and enhances the efficiency of their utilization.
Geospatial Analysis of the Distribution of Public Secondary Education Institutions in the City of Sabha
This study aims to clarify the role of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) in analyzing the geospatial distribution of public secondary education institutions in the city of Sabha. This is achieved through spatial analysis and interpretation of the current distribution pattern of these institutions and their relationship with selected geographic variables, particularly population and area. The study also seeks to explain the prevailing geospatial distribution pattern of secondary education institutions. The research adopts the descriptive, quantitative, and analytical approaches, employing several spatial statistical techniques, including standard distance, mean center, weighted mean center, directional distribution, standard deviational ellipse, nearest neighbor index, Moran’s I, and spatial buffering, to examine service coverage in the city of Sabha and assess the extent to which planning standards are met by educational institutions. The results reveal that the geospatial distribution pattern of secondary education institutions is completely clustered and characterized by inequitable distribution and uneven spatial spread across the city. There is a clear concentration in the numerical distribution of secondary education institutions, alongside noticeable variation in the spatial distribution of some of them. This situation is primarily attributed to disparities in population distribution among the urban districts of Sabha. The study also addresses the current and future needs of secondary education institutions, including secondary schools and technical and vocational institutes in the city, based on population projections and national planning standards.
Geographical Constraints to Economic Development in Libya
This study aimed to understand, analyze, and evaluate the geographical constraints to economic development in Libya by providing a comprehensive examination of the nature of these constraints and analyzing their roles and negative impacts on the Libyan economic reality. To address the research questions and reach its conclusions, the study employed the descriptive-analytical approach, the regional approach, and spatial analysis methods using Geographic Information Systems (GIS(. The study reached several key findings, most notably that a combination of adverse natural and human geographical conditions, coupled with severe deterioration in transportation infrastructure, logistics services, and connectivity—particularly the absence of a railway transport system—has significantly hindered economic development in Libya. This situation has been exacerbated by the lack of a national geo-economic strategy capable of enabling the economy to adapt to geographical constraints. These conditions have impeded economic development and its sustainability, prevented the equitable distribution of development benefits across all regions of the country, and ultimately led to weak development outcomes, declining gains, and reduced development targets. Based on the analysis and evaluation of these constraints, and drawing on selected geographical foundations supportive of economic development, the study proposed a national strategy for adapting to geographical constraints and capitalizing on spatial advantages, with the aim of achieving economic development objectives and ensuring their sustainability.
Monitoring Urban Expansion and Its Impact on Agricultural and Forest Lands in Al-Qarabulli Municipality
This study examined the monitoring of urban expansion in the Al-Qarabulli Municipality and its impact on agricultural and forest lands using remote sensing and geographic information systems (GIS). The study area suffers from rapid urban expansion in the absence of land planning based on planning standards. The study aimed to monitor urban expansion in the Al-Qarabulli area over agricultural and forest lands, analyze the factors influencing it, highlight the importance of remote sensing and GIS in studying urban expansion and its impact on agricultural and forest lands, and determine the extent, stages, and directions of this expansion. The study revealed rapid urban expansion in the municipality, where the proportion of urban areas increased from 4.2% in 2010 to 31.7% of the total municipal area in 2025. Consequently, the area of agricultural lands decreased from 299 km² and forest lands from 78.7 km² in 2000 to 138 km² and 43.5 km² respectively in 2025. At the same time, the urban area increased from 10.4 km² in 2000 to 128.7 km² in 2025, indicating that significant portions of agricultural and forest lands were consumed between 2000 and 2025, approximately 161 km² of agricultural lands (representing about 54%) and around 35 km² of forest lands (representing 68.6%). This reflects a high percentage of vegetation cover loss in the municipality. Meanwhile, the urban area increased by 118 km², a growth rate of 113% during the same period.
Temporal Trends in the Production of Sorghum and Millet Crops in North Kordofan State during the Period 2005–2021
This study aimed to analyze the temporal trends in the production of millet and sorghum in North Kordofan State during the period 2005–2021, to assess differences among the various localities, and to determine the state’s contribution to national production. The study was based on official data on crop production and cultivated areas obtained from the Ministry of Agriculture of North Kordofan State, national production data from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAOSTAT), in addition to rainfall data derived from the CHIRPS dataset. The Mann–Kendall and Theil–Sen tests were applied, alongside linear regression analysis, to estimate trends and their statistical significance. The results indicated that production fluctuates from year to year, with an overall increasing trend, particularly for millet, which exhibited an increase rate of approximately 605 tons per hectare per year, and this increase was statistically significant. In contrast, sorghum production increased by about 263 tons per hectare per year, but this trend was not statistically significant. The year 2015 was exceptional, recording the highest production levels and contribution to national output despite relatively low rainfall (134 mm). Millet showed a weaker correlation with rainfall, as its production thrived in the localities of Jabra Al-Sheikh, Bara, and Sodari, compared to sorghum, which is more prevalent in the southern localities of Um Rawaba, Al-Rahad, and Sheikan, where rainfall is relatively more stable. The study recommended several measures, including the establishment of an integrated and accessible database to support evidence-based decision-making, and conducting a detailed investigation into the factors that contributed to the production success in 2015, with the aim of transforming these factors into a sustainable managerial and technical model.
Transformations of Livestock Systems and Challenges to the Sustainability of Pastoral Resources in the Eastern Moroccan Steppes: A Case Study of the Tafrata Plain in the Guercif Basin, Morocco
Livestock production systems in arid and semi-arid lands are changing due to increasing population pressures, ongoing demands on water and rangelands, and natural factors. This paper examines a century-long transformation from transhumant pastoralism to a settled agro-pastoral system in northeastern Morocco. The general aim of the study is to understand the shift toward intensive agro-pastoral production systems in the semi-arid Tafrata Plain within the Guercif Basin, where this transformation is characterized by sedentarization, abandonment of transhumance, and the use of stables for rangeland rehabilitation and fodder production. These changes were accompanied by diversification in fodder crops, with livelihoods increasingly dependent on irrigated agriculture rather than livestock mobility. The results indicate that the observed transformation in the study area is moving toward an unsustainable intensive agro-pastoral system, accompanied by emerging risks such as land-use conflicts due to the weakening of communal property rights.
Development of Irrigated Agriculture in the Rural Areas of the Southern Suburbs of Meknes between the Requirements of Sustainable Rural Development and the Challenges of Water Stress
A set of natural and historical factors has interacted to shape the agricultural landscape in the rural areas south of the city of Meknes. The irregularity of rainfall and the lack of a permanent surface water network have played a prominent role in directing agricultural practices toward irrigation as a strategic option to achieve agricultural intensification, particularly given that the region lies within the Saïss Plateau, which is rich in groundwater resources. In their search for alternative water sources, farmers have increasingly relied on the unconfined aquifer through the drilling of irrigation-equipped wells, with depths ranging from about 50 m in the northern part of the southern suburbs to approximately 80 m in the far south. It is well established that the rapid increase in the number of wells has had negative impacts on groundwater resources, which have been experiencing a continuous decline in water reserves at an average rate of about 40 cm per year. This has been accompanied by a drop in the groundwater table, with an estimated annual average decline of around 4 m. In addition, surface water inputs have decreased, as groundwater recharge amounts to approximately 240 million m³, while withdrawals reach about 340 million m³, resulting in an annual deficit of nearly 100 million m³. In response to these transformations, the irrigated agricultural area in the region has expanded significantly over the past two decades by approximately 4,300 ha, with an uneven spatial distribution. The largest expansion occurred in the municipality of Majjat (1,670 ha), followed by Sidi Slimane Moul Al-Kifane (1,430 ha) and Ait Yaazem (1,200 ha.( At the same time, the area of land suitable for agriculture has declined. Despite this dynamic expansion, rainfed subsistence agriculture remains important, which signals a likely further shift toward irrigation and increased pressure on the underlying groundwater aquifer. This trend poses a serious threat to regional water security and is associated with a range of environmental problems. The study highlights the urgent need to reconcile irrigated agricultural development with the principles of sustainable rural development and integrated water resource management.
Environmental Pollutants Resulting from Gas Concentrations in Babil Governorate: A Statistical–Analytical Study
Air pollution is considered one of the most prominent contemporary environmental challenges due to its serious health and environmental impacts. It is manifested by the presence of gaseous or particulate pollutants at concentrations exceeding permissible limits, adversely affecting human health and ecosystem integrity. This study aims to analyze the spatial and temporal variability of air pollutants in Babil Governorate using official environmental data for the year 2020. The data were collected from three monitoring stations (Abu Khashtawi, University of Babylon, and Hayy Nader) and included the main pollutants under investigation: sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), and particulate matter. The study adopted a statistical–analytical approach, employing one-way analysis of variance (One-Way ANOVA) and the Tukey HSD post hoc test to identify statistically significant differences among the monitoring stations. The results revealed clear spatial and temporal variability in the concentrations of certain gases. Hayy Nader station recorded the highest concentration of sulfur dioxide, while the University of Babylon station showed the highest concentrations of NO and NO₂. In addition, Hayy Nader station was characterized by notably elevated levels of particulate matter. Statistical tests confirmed the presence of significant differences among some stations, reflecting the influence of human activities (industrial, traffic-related, and residential) in addition to natural and climatic conditions. The study concludes that air pollution in Babil Governorate represents a growing environmental and public health problem, necessitating the strengthening of environmental monitoring programs and the implementation of effective policies to reduce emission sources. It also highlights the importance of expanding statistical environmental studies to enable early detection of pollution patterns.
Analysis of Trends in Monthly and Annual Wind Speed in Northwestern Jordan during the Period (1990–2022(
This study aimed to detect trends in wind speed rates in northwestern Jordan during the period 1990–2022 and to analyze the form and nature of the spatial relationship between wind speed and elevation above sea level. The analysis was based on the Mann–Kendall Tau test and Sen’s slope estimator to assess trends in monthly and annual wind speed, in addition to the F-test to determine the statistical relationship between elevation above sea level and wind speed. The results revealed a decreasing trend in both annual and monthly wind speed, with rates of −1.4 and −1.84 m/s, respectively, at a statistical significance level of α = 0.05. Furthermore, the findings indicated a moderate positive correlation between wind speed and elevation above sea level, which was statistically significant at the same level (α = 0.05). The study recommended the development of adaptation strategies to cope with changing wind patterns.
Trend Analysis of Autumn Rainfall Averages in Misurata Northwestern Libya during the Period (1960–2023)
This study aims to analyze trends in autumn rainfall averages in Misurata, northwestern Libya, during the period 1960–2023, based on climatic data from the Misurata Meteorological Station. Statistical methods commonly used in climate trend analysis were applied, including moving averages, cumulated sums (CUSUM), simple linear regression, and the t-test. The results indicate a general decreasing trend in autumn rainfall averages over the study period, particularly toward the year 2023. Additionally, the study found that 57.81% of autumn seasons during the period were classified as dry, with average rainfall below the long-term mean for the region. These findings highlight a clear pattern of rainfall reduction in autumn, which has important implications for water resources management and planning in Misurata and the surrounding areas.
Climatic Analysis of Temperature Change Indicators at Tripoli Meteorological Station during the Period (1919–2020)
This study aims to analyze annual, seasonal, and monthly temperature records at the Tripoli meteorological station over the period 1919–2020, in order to detect indicators of change in temperature trends, whether increasing or decreasing. The analysis is based on monthly data of minimum, maximum, and dry-bulb temperatures. Several statistical methods commonly used in climatological studies were employed, including cumulative sums (CUSUM), the t-test, moving averages, and simple linear regression, to identify statistically significant trends in annual, seasonal, and monthly temperature averages in the study area at a significance level of less than 0.05. The results revealed the presence of a positive thermal trend in annual, seasonal, and monthly minimum, maximum, and dry-bulb temperatures, with statistical significance at the 0.05 level across all seasons and months in the Tripoli region.
Spatial Variability of Climatic Drought in the Benghazi Plain Using the (SPI) and Johnson’s Continentality–Oceanity Index (1981–2024)
This study aims to analyze climatic drought in the Benghazi Plain over the period 1981–2024 by integrating two climate indices of different natures: the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) and Johnson’s continentality–maritime index. The analysis is based on monthly data obtained from the NASA POWER database. Four observation points were selected and distributed from the coastal zone toward inland areas to represent the climatic gradient between maritime and continental influences. The SPI results reveal a clear gradient in drought severity from the northern coastal areas toward the semi-desert southern parts of the plain, while Johnson’s index indicates a steady increase in continentality along the same direction. Statistical analysis of the relationship between the two indices shows a negative correlation, reflecting the interaction between precipitation-related and thermal factors in shaping drought conditions. Furthermore, spatial analysis using the Kriging interpolation method demonstrates a notable spatial correspondence between increased continentality and higher drought severity in the southern areas, contrasted with relatively moderate conditions along the coast. These findings highlight the importance of integrating precipitation-based and thermal indices with spatial analysis to better interpret the dynamics of climatic drought in the Benghazi Plain.
Assessment of Meteorological and Hydrological Drought at Tripoli Station: An Analytical Study of Dry and Wet Periods (1959–1998(
The use of deviation-from-mean data is useful for identifying the onset and termination of meteorological drought. However, agricultural drought, hydrological drought, and water management drought do not end immediately following above-average rainfall. This is because previous drought years leave the soil extremely dry, absorbing most of the precipitation, with a significant portion lost to evaporation, leaving only a limited amount for surface and groundwater storage. The rainfall record in Tripoli from 1959 to 1998 included 22 drought years, of which 8 were isolated, 4 were consecutive pairs, and one was an extended period of six consecutive years. Examination of the data (Table 1, column 4) indicates that the 1980/81–1981/82 drought was the most severe, with an annual deficit of 154.7 mm, followed by 1996/97 with 151.8 mm. The severity of any drought period is determined not only by the annual deficit but also by its duration. Accordingly, the 1989–1994 drought, although ranked fourth in terms of annual deficit, caused the greatest impact on agricultural, pastoral, and water resources due to its six-year duration, accumulating a total deficit of 30.95% of all deficits recorded in the area since 1959. This was followed by the 1980–81 drought (15.75%) and the 1967–68 drought (10.69%(. Cumulative analysis also indicated that the study area experienced two prolonged hydrological drought periods: the first from 1961 to 1970, interrupted by three above-average rainfall years (1963, 1966, and 1969), and the second from 1989 to 1998, interrupted by two above-average rainfall years (1995 and 1997). The wet period from 1971 to 1979 was only interrupted by the 1976 drought.
Libyan Water Security, Foundations, Challenges, and Means of Achievement: A Geographical Study
Libya is considered one of the world’s most water-scarce countries due to the limited amounts of rainfall it receives, a condition largely attributed to its astronomical and geographical location. More than 80% of Libya’s territory consists of arid desert lands, and the country lacks permanent surface water resources. Consequently, Libya relies almost entirely on groundwater resources, including both non-renewable aquifers and others characterized by very limited recharge rates. Non-conventional water resources—such as seawater desalination and treated wastewater—contribute only a very small share, not exceeding 2% of the total available and exploited water resources. The continuous growth of the population has led to an increasing demand for freshwater to meet domestic and urban needs, in addition to supporting various economic activities. Approximately 65% of Libya’s population resides in northern coastal cities along the Mediterranean Sea, where most economic activities are concentrated. However, these cities overlie aquifers with limited water reserves and weak recharge potential. Excessive pressure on these aquifers has resulted in groundwater depletion and deterioration of water quality. This situation necessitated the exploitation of non-renewable groundwater resources in the southern region through the Great Man-Made River Project and their transfer to northern cities suffering from water scarcity and high population concentration. As a result, Libya faces numerous challenges in achieving water security, including the vast territorial area of the country, the dominance of arid and semi-arid climatic conditions, the non-renewability of water resources, population concentration in water-scarce regions, the limited contribution of non-conventional water resources, and the very high proportion of water consumption by the agricultural sector.
Flood Hazard in Morocco: Analysis of Spatial Disparities and the Limits of Management Effectiveness
Several regions in Morocco are exposed to flood hazards as a result of the interaction between various natural and human factors. These floods are neither recent nor solely the product of current conditions; rather, their occurrence dates back several decades. However, climate change, along with the widespread expansion of vulnerability patterns, has significantly increased the likelihood of flood events across many Moroccan territories. The scientific value of this study lies in addressing a critical issue that has become increasingly pressing for all stakeholders involved in territorial management at the central, regional, and local levels—namely, flood risk, which causes substantial human and material losses when it occurs. The main objective of this research is to highlight the evolution of flood hazards in Morocco by compiling a comprehensive inventory of major flood events that have affected the national territory since the mid-twentieth century. The study also aims to establish an inclusive classification of the most threatened areas, determine their levels of risk, and examine the key factors responsible for flood formation, as well as the measures adopted for flood prevention and management. The findings indicate that most regions within Moroccan territory—whether in the north, east, southeast, or west—are exposed to flood hazards, underscoring the urgent need for intensified efforts toward rational and sustainable management of this natural risk.
Using the Topographic Wetness Index (TWI) to Identify Flash Flood Runoff Accumulation Areas in Al-Khums Region, Libya
This study focuses on the application of the Topographic Wetness Index (TWI) as a Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing–based approach to analyze the relationship between terrain water retention potential and surface runoff convergence toward low-lying areas. The coastal region of Al-Khums is bounded to the south by a series of elevated plateaus and hills and dissected by numerous wadis, making it highly susceptible during rainy seasons to the accumulation of large volumes of rainfall in topographic depressions. This often results in flash floods that cause road closures and disrupt traffic movement across the region. Accordingly, the study aimed to analyze the influence of topographic characteristics on the spatial distribution of surface runoff and to identify areas most vulnerable to flash flood accumulation, while establishing a digital geographic database that can be utilized in urban planning and flood risk mitigation. The results demonstrated that flood occurrences are clearly concentrated along major road networks, posing significant threats to population safety, built-up areas, and transportation continuity. Furthermore, the Topographic Wetness Index (TWI) proved to be highly effective in accurately delineating water accumulation zones, confirming its importance as a robust scientific tool for predicting flood-prone areas and supporting decision-makers in water resources management, flood mitigation, and sustainable urban planning within the study area.
Studying the possibility of harvesting floods in Wadi Tavalgo Basin in Mizdah region, Libya using GIS & RS.
The study addressed the possibility of harvesting floodwaters in the valley of Tefalgu basin using remote sensing and geographic information systems, as well as understanding the flood risks in the valley basin and the potential to avoid them. The basin covers an area of 2,059 km². The study area encompasses geological formations dating back to the Upper Cretaceous, covering 93.5% of the region, making them the most exposed geological formations in the basin. The elevation of the basin's surface ranges from 234 meters at its outlet in Wadi Souf El-Jin to 952 meters above sea level at the top of Jebel Nafusa between Gharyan and Al-Asabi'a, a significant difference of 718 meters, with elevations gradually varying in between. The slope of the basin ranges from 0 to 40 degrees, and regarding the slope direction, the predominant direction is south at 14%, followed by southeast at 13.9%, east at 13.8%, and southwest at 13%, and these directions play a key role in determining the surface runoff direction of rainwater. The dominant soil in the Wadi basin is mixed soil with medium to coarse materials, accounting for 99.7%, while the remaining 0.3% is sandy clay soil. The study revealed six types of land cover, with shrubs occupying most of the area at 96.1%. The study concluded the feasibility of applying water harvesting and proposed several sites for constructing dams to capture rainwater and mitigate the risk of floods.
Analysis of Sand Dune Encroachment Dynamics and Prediction of Their Evolution in the Benghazi Plain during the Period (2000–2035)
This study aims to analyze the dynamics of sand dune encroachment in the Benghazi Plain during the period 2000–2025, relying on Landsat and Sentinel-2 satellite imagery, Geographic Information Systems (GIS) techniques, panel data modeling using EViews, and field observations. A spatial analytical approach was adopted to monitor dune distribution, measure their spatial expansion, and analyze annual migration rates. In addition, a descriptive statistical approach was employed to estimate the relationships between climatic and environmental variables and dune movement rates. The results indicate an increase in the dune migration rate from 8.5 to 10.6 m/year, accompanied by a rise in sandy soil proportion from 60% to 64%, while slope remained constant at 1.8 degrees, highlighting the role of geomorphological characteristics in accelerating dune movement. Moreover, the area of active dunes expanded from 160 to 230 km² due to vegetation cover degradation and climatic factors. Projections for the period 2025–2035 suggest a continued increase in migration rates, reaching approximately 13.6 m/year, alongside a decline in the Soil Moisture Index (SMI) from 0.28 to 0.18, reflecting reduced moisture availability, intensified desertification processes, and further degradation of vegetation cover. Consequently, the area affected by sand dunes is expected to reach nearly 300 km². Accordingly, the study recommends the implementation of sustainable desertification control strategies, including land rehabilitation, planting drought-resistant vegetation, and soil stabilization measures. It also emphasizes the importance of adopting integrated dune management and continuous environmental monitoring using satellite imagery and GIS, as well as developing risk indicators such as the Desertification Severity Index (DSI) to support environmental planning and mitigate the impacts of desertification in the region.
Assessment of Vegetation Cover Dynamics in the Taminah Municipal Branch, Misrata Municipality during the Period 1984–2024
This study examines and evaluates the dynamics of vegetation cover in the Taminah branch of Misrata Municipality over the period 1984–2024, with the aim of identifying vegetation cover classes and the changes that have occurred in terms of area and relative proportions. The study also seeks to understand the key factors influencing these changes, particularly urban expansion and climatic variations. Spatial analysis techniques were employed through the processing of satellite imagery and the application of the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI .(The results revealed noticeable changes in vegetation cover over the study period and identified several human-induced factors that have had negative impacts on vegetation conditions. In addition, the areas most affected by these changes were clearly delineated. The study recommends the adoption of sustainable development policies to protect natural resources, along with conducting further research to enhance understanding of the impacts of climate change on the local environment.
The Influence of Surrounding Environmental Factors on NDVI Values Derived from Landsat Satellite Imagery in the Al-Jabal Al-Akhdar Region
Vegetation Indices (VIs) are widely used to describe vegetation greenness, relative density, and health in satellite imagery. Although vegetation indices were developed to extract vegetation signals exclusively, several external factors—such as soil background, moisture conditions, solar azimuth angle, sensor viewing angle, and atmospheric interactions—can influence the reflectance received by the sensor. Consequently, these factors may alter vegetation index values, leading to results that do not accurately represent vegetation density or its temporal variation. The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), derived from Landsat satellite imagery, is among the most commonly used and simplest vegetation indices for estimating vegetation density and coverage in a given area. However, NDVI values may be affected by surrounding environmental conditions, potentially yielding misleading estimates. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate NDVI values by comparing them with the Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index (SAVI) and the Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI), in order to assess the suitability of NDVI for evaluating vegetation density under varying environmental conditions. The study also aims to monitor vegetation cover changes in the Al-Jabal Al-Akhdar region over the past 50 years and to identify long-term vegetation dynamics. The analysis was based on a high spatial resolution (30 m) Landsat TM image acquired in August 2023, from which NDVI, SAVI, and EVI were calculated for each pixel within the study area to assess vegetation cover and compare index performance. In addition, multi-temporal satellite images spanning the period from 1972 to 2023 were utilized to examine long-term changes in vegetation cover across the region. One of the key findings of the study is that, for accurate vegetation cover assessment, it is preferable to use multiple vegetation indices in conjunction with NDVI to obtain more reliable estimates of actual vegetation conditions in the study area.
The nature of the rentier economy and its implications for the economic structure in Libya: A study in economic geography
1 This study aimed to analyze the effects of economic rent, specifically in the oil sector, on the productive sectors of the Libyan economy. It examined the impact of an inflated labor force in the services sector, alongside the decline in the contribution of productive sectors—particularly agriculture and industry to the gross domestic product (GDP).To achieve the research objectives, the study relied on reviewing academic sources and previous studies that addressed the subject from multiple perspectives, in addition to analyzing official statistics and reports issued by relevant authorities. The research methodology incorporated historical, descriptive analytical, and comparative approaches to collect, interpret, and compare pertinent data and information. The study concluded that a rentier economy leads to economic instability, as it is directly influenced by fluctuations in global oil prices and the political crises faced by oil exporting countries. Oil revenues have had a clear impact on Libya's labor structure, with a significant contraction in the productive sector and notable growth in the services sector. During the 1970s, the growth rate of the workforce in productive sectors recorded a negative rate of 14%, whereas the services sector experienced a 35% increase in the same period. Furthermore, the findings indicated that oil rent has accounted for more than 50% of the GDP in most years since its discovery, adversely affecting non-oil sectors. In 2008, these sectors recorded their lowest contribution to the national GDP, amounting to only 21.8% of the country’s total output If you need any refinements or further improvements, I'm happy to assist!
Spatial Suitability for Establishing a Wastewater Treatment Plant in the Al-Khoms Area
The establishment of wastewater treatment plants is one of the most important and effective means for the safe and beneficial disposal of wastewater, ensuring public safety and avoiding unacceptable environmental risks. In most cities in Libya, including the study area, it is observed that wastewater discharged from households and institutions—regardless of its source—is disposed of directly into the sea without treatment, thus posing a serious threat to the environment and public health. This research aims to identify the optimal location for establishing a wastewater treatment plant in the Al-Khoms area using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing—key tools in this field that are widely relied upon for planning and decision-making. The study adopted an applied and analytical methodology based on the visual representation of scientific data, including several paper maps and satellite imagery. After extracting and classifying the relevant layers, the Weighted Overlay Model was applied. This process resulted in the production of a digital map through which the optimal site for constructing a wastewater treatment plant in the region was identified. The outcome supports well-informed decisions regarding suitable geographic locations for various environmental projects in the area.
Spatial variation of agricultural land uses in Tuz Khurmato district An applied study on selected provinces
The study shows the analysis of spatial differences in agricultural land uses, and this is confirmed by the results of spatial statistical analysis between the selected agricultural districts, which were classified based on the creation of statistical spatial maps with real results using spatial statistical Analysis applications (Spatial statistical Analysis) and the cluster analysis method using Moran's Moran's (I) Method in modeling the spatial distribution of agricultural land uses in tuzkhurmatu district. Spatial statistical processing and analysis in geographic information systems (GIS) is an effective tool to identify spatial differences, relationships and correlations between different geographical phenomena, which makes it possible to accurately assess the use of agricultural land, determine the suitability of the land for agriculture and the potential for its development, as the research found that the distribution of wheat growing areas in the region shows a semi-random pattern, where the Moran index reached 0.193, Z-Score Value 1.32, and P-Value 0.186, which indicates the absence of a clear spatial grouping of the distribution of land planted with wheat, meaning this is the absence of a specific geographical organization at the significance levels of 0.05 and 0.10.
Ismail Fadel Khamis Mustafa al Bayati Ismail Fadel Khamis Mustafa al Bayati
Geographical Analysis of Protected Agriculture in the Abu Zahia Area, Sirte Municipality: A Study in Agricultural Geography
This study aims to conduct a geographical analysis of the natural and human geographic factors and their impact on protected agriculture. It also focuses on identifying the most important crop types, the cultivated area, and production quantity, with the goal of optimizing the investment in this type of agriculture to ensure food security and support the local economy in the Abu Zahia area, which covers an area of 9,730 hectares and has an estimated population of 8,598. The study adopts the regional approach to clarify the spatial distribution of greenhouses and plastic tunnels and their production quantities. It also applies the descriptive approach, along with two main frameworks: the functional approach, which focuses on the functional structure of the economic activity by studying the agricultural production unit, its tools, labor level, marketing outlets, and daily work movement; and the deterministic approach, commonly used in agricultural geography research to study geographic factors influencing protected agriculture. Furthermore, the study employs the crop-based approach to analyze the types of crops grown in protected agriculture, and the analytical method that relies on numerical data for accurate analysis and comparison. It uses statistical methods to provide a descriptive and analytical picture of the data by extracting ratios and applying certain statistical standards. The study also utilizes Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to produce maps using ArcMap 10.1.
The Role of Cannabis Cultivation in Socio-Spatial Dynamics and the Degradation of Natural Resources in the South-Central Rif: Ikhlalfa Commune as a Case Study
Cannabis cultivation is one of the most prominent agricultural activities in the Central Rif region, with its origins dating back to the 11th century. It emerged in the territory of the Taounate Province during the 1990s. The rural commune of Ikhlalfa is considered one of the first areas in the province to adopt this cultivation, due to its geographical proximity to the historical cannabis-producing regions. Several factors contributed to the emergence and expansion of this activity, including socio-economic vulnerability, limited official intervention, the weak performance of the agricultural economy and its inability to meet basic needs, as well as the high profitability and returns of cannabis—particularly after the introduction of hybrid strains (such as Khardala and Tritika). These factors transformed the agricultural landscape and triggered significant socio-economic dynamics, while having a major impact on the environmental landscape.The study reached several findings, notably the expansion of cannabis cultivation at the expense of cereals and legumes, a decline in livestock farming, and severe degradation of local natural resources. Socially, traditional rural customs associated with collective and cooperative work have disintegrated, and conflicts over land and water have intensified.
The role of small projects in achieving economic development in the Municipality of Misrata
This study aims to identify the small projects in the municipality of Misrata and their role in achieving economic development through their impact on the local economy of the area by providing job opportunities and improving individual income levels. It also seeks to highlight the main geographical factors affecting the success of these projects and the key challenges they face. This was done through a questionnaire consisting of six sections distributed to a purposive (non-probabilistic) sample of 150 projects in the area. The results showed a moderate impact of small projects on the local economy, influenced by several factors and challenges related to the geographical location of the projects, infrastructure, financing, and the local market. Various statistical methods were used to test the study’s hypotheses, such as the arithmetic mean, standard deviation, and correlation coefficient.